National Disruption : Medieval Culture
Kamakura Period
During the Heian period the attempt to set up centrally controlled land ownership collapsed. Military families in the countryside amassed land and built up armies. These families were generally cadet branches of the imperial line.
In 1156 a dispute arose in the court over the succession to the throne. Each side appealed to military families for help and civil war followed. In the war the Heike (Taira) forces defeated those of the Genji (Minamoto).
The leader of the Heike (Taira no Kiyomori) married his daughter to the Emperor and when a son was born, Kiyomori had him declared heir to the throne.
Kiyomori was a harsh ruler and many were resentful. His actions resulted in a revolt against him led by the sons of the man he had defeated earlier.
The Taira were finally defeated in a major battle at a place near the Southern tip of Honshu known as Dan no Ura. In 1185 a military administration was set up in Kamakura.
The Taira’s rise and fall became the subject of musical recitations performed by Buddhist monks and eventually these formed the source for the major work of the medieval period, The Tale of the Heike (Heike monogatari).
Medieval Culture
With the defeat of the Heike (Taira) the capital of Japan was moved to the traditional base of the Genji (Minamoto) in Kamakura in 1185. The leader of the Genji was given the title of Shogun by the Emperor and governed in the name of the Emperor.
One reason historians give for the establishment of the administrative capital at Kamakura is that the Genji felt that the Taira had been weakened by the effete influence of the courtiers. Although ostensibly attempting to avoid too close contact, the Genji and those who followed them maintained an administrative office in Kyoto for communication with the court.
Until around 1330 the emperor remained the legitimate source of power and the military rulers still aspired to attain the artistic abilities and sensibilities of the courtiers. Around 1330 another struggle between members of the imperial family occurs and for a few years there are emperors in Kyoto and in Yoshino to the south. The southern court is eventually dissolved in 1392, but the power of the throne is completely undermined and never has any more than a symbolic role from that point until the Meiji Restoration of 1868.
The Kamakura period marks the rise of three new sects of Buddhism: Amidism, Nichiren Buddhism and
Zen.
From a religion that had depended on self-help and self-discipline, Buddhism had developed into one that largely encouraged believers to appeal to various boddhisattvas for aid.
The period following Buddha’s birth was divided into three ages:
1. the flourishing of the law
2. period of decline
3. disappearance (mappo, begins 1052)
In this final time one could only appeal to the intervention of others for salvation.
The wars starting in 1156 led to much destruction and reinforced the idea of the law losing power. To add to this feeling of collapse in the early 13th century Kyoto experienced a great fire, a severe windstorm and an epidemic.
Amidism:
Amida, the Buddha who resided in the Western Paradise, had been important in Tendai Buddhism, but now became the central figure in a separate sect known as Pure Land Buddhism.
Followers were to call upon the name of Amida for rebirth in Amida’s pure land. In the Pure Land belief one need only sincerely call the name of Amida once to be assured of salvation.
Nichiren Buddhism:
Named after its founder Nichiren. He was deeply affected by the idea of mappo along with attempted invasions by the Mongols (1274 & 1281).
Nichiren felt the other sects had weakened Japan and the only true religion was his own. He held that the ultimate truth was to be found only in the Lotus Sutra.
Followers need only call on the name of the Lotus Sutra to achieve salvation. His name was written with the characters for “sun” and “lotus.” He held that at the end of the law Japan would become the center of Buddhism and he would play a role like that of the historical Buddha.
Zen:
Was known in Japan from early times. Zen encourages enlightenment through discipline and effort. The word Zen means meditation and meditation is the major disciplinary practice.
In Zen enlightenment is attained through intuition rather than intellect. The koan, a question with no logical answer is a major device for transcending dependence on reason.
Zen appealed particularly to the military for its self discipline and control. It also played a major role in art and aesthetics. It was particularly influential in painting and pottery. Zen also revived interest in Chinese poetry and its spirit greatly influenced the major writers of Noh plays.
Through the 13th century Japanese poetry as seen in imperial collections of 31 syllable verses remained the most prestigious form of literature. Around 1205 the eighth collection was compiled. This collection, Shinkokinshu (New Collection of Poems Past and Present), is generally considered next in quality to the Collection of Poems Past and Present of 905.
Poetry became darker in mood. Also reflecting the change in the times, there was more interest in sites outside the capital. The traveling monk-poet became an important figure.
The renewal of scholarship inspired by more dealings with China at this time led to interest in history and the past. Interest in the poetry of the Manyoshu (Collection for Ten Thousand Ages, 759) and the Kokinshu (Collection of Poems Past and Present) revived. Poets were encouraged to look to the past in making their poems. Poetry was to resonate with references and suggestions. The leading poet of the time advocated that “words [be] too few.” I.e., every word was to carry many meanings.
Aesthetic terms:
Sabi – idea of loneliness, sadness as found in dark, desolate settings
Yojo – depth, resonance. Words must have many associations, implications
Yugen – an atmosphere of mysteriousness
The period of centralized rule by a powerful shogun from about 1330 to 1392 sees the development of the Noh theater under the patronage of the shogun. The noh is often regarded as the ultimate expression of yugen. It is performed by principal actors who are masked, on an almost bare stage, to sparse musical accompaniment, chanting. It depends for effect on splendid costumes, ritualistic speech and movement and symbolism.
Linked verse, which began as a kind of pastime in the court, was developed into an art during this period and ultimately was taken to the common people by poet/monks who traveled from place to place engaging local people in poetry making sessions.
The period from 1392 to1600 is marked by disintegration and fighting between many local military rulers.
After much mayhem, three main figures emerge in the mid to late 16th century, Oda Nobunaga (1534-82), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-98) and Tokugawa Ienaga (1542-1616). Nobunaga and Hideyoshi in turn consolidate more and more territory. Finally Tokugawa Ienaga eliminates all rival factions in a decisive battle in 1600. He establishes his capital in Edo (modern Tokyo) which marks the beginning of the Edo or Tokugawa period.