Currents of Change
Although the Edo period culture most widely known today is that of the townspeople, the official culture was a conservative one based in Confucian philosophy. A large portion of contemporary Japanese social and moral attitudes derives from this source.
The main objective of the Shogunate was to prevent change. The official philosophy of the Shogunate was modeled on the Neo-Confucianism that had evolved in Song (Sung) China.
In China Neo-Confucianism was very interested in metaphysical speculation, but in Japan Neo-Confucianism was seen mainly as a way of ordering society. This order was to be based on the five primary human relationships between father and son, ruler and subject, husband and wife, older and younger brother and between two friends.
The study of history in order to understand right social conduct and administration was emphasized. This study of ancient history led to the questioning of the organization of the current society and administration by many scholars. The investigation of older Chinese ideas about social organization led to the formulation of a code of conduct for samurai that emphasized loyalty to one’s lord and devotion to duty. These ideas are said to have led finally to the formulation of what has become known as bushido or “the way of the warrior.”
The study of Japanese history although inspired by examples of Chinese studies of China led more and more to concern for understanding of Japanese history, customs and thought.
A school of learning devoted to the study of old Japanese histories and literary works rose to prominence in the mid 18th century. This school was known as National Learning (Kokugakuha).
The studies of Kamo Mabuchi (1697-1769), the first major scholar of the National Learning School, led to reevaluation of the Manyoshu (Collection for a Myriad Ages, 759). He saw as the Manyoshu as the fountainhead of Japanese spirit. Mabuchi held that the Manyoshu embodied the naturalness, spontaneity, and manly vigor that had been present Japan before Chinese culture had perverted true Japanese culture. According to him, the manner of conduct of the courtiers of the Heian period grew out of exposure to Chinese culture and was artificial and effeminate.
On the other hand Motoori Norinaga (1730-1801), who regarded himself as Mabuchi’s disciple, focussed his attention on Japanese court literature. He is particularly famous for his critical evaluation of The Tale of Genji which he regarded as a work of mono no aware reflecting native Japanese sensitivity. He praised the refinement and effeminacy that Mabuchi had seen as defects, and regarded these characteristics as the greatest product of Japanese culture.
Motoori also reclaimed the Kojiki (Records of Ancient matters, 712) by deciphering its highly confusing writing system. Motoori regarded the Kojiki as the basic scripture of Shinto and its writings were to be accepted as gospel.
The work of these men in making these writings that had previously been largely inaccessible was one of Japan’s greatest scholarly accomplishments. However, the claim that the writings revealed the true spirit of Japan was exploited in the 20th century to justify the militarists emphasis on the “divinity” of the Emperor and to demand subjugation to laws supposedly reflecting his divine will.
Later National Learning tended to split into groups of scholars studying literature and history, who were also interested in Shinto as religion, and others who became politically active and urged the revival of the imperial throne.
At the same time as studies of Japan took on depth, interest in the West was also growing. The main source for information was the Dutch traders in Nagasaki and these studies were known as Dutch Studies. In 1720 the Shogun lifted restrictions on the importation of foreign books as long as they did not deal with Christianity. From this time until relations resumed with the West, Japanese students studying European subjects learned Dutch. Subjects of interest to the Japanese included mathematics, astronomy, military science, geography, navigation and medicine.
The Japanese were impressed and alarmed by the advanced Western culture. This concern grew eventually into a call for Eastern morals and Western technology.
MEETING THE WEST
By the middle of the 19th century as well as inside Japan changes were occurring internationally. Steam ships were now sailing to the most remote areas of the world.
In 1853 the “black ships” of Commodore Perry arrived in Edo Bay. In 1854 a Treaty of Friendship was signed to allow exchange of consular officials between Japan and the U.S. In 1856 the first American consul, Townsend Harris arrived. A commercial agreement was worked out that included what came to be known as “unequal treaty provisions.”
The provisions included extraterritoriality, the most-favored nation clause and a fixed customs levy of 5% on all goods imported into Japan.
There had been much internal resistance to the Shogunate’s acceptance of the West. Certain Daimyo called for overthrow of the Shogunate under the slogans, "Revere the Emperor” and “Expel the Barbarians.” The Shogunate was defeated in battle and the opposing forces proclaimed an imperial restoration.
The Emperor Meiji (1852-1912) took the throne at age 15. Many of his early supporters foresaw a return to old values and ways, but most looked to the future and the slogan “Expel the Barbarians” was soon dropped. Generally they felt the only way for Japan to remain independent was to modernize.
In order to eliminate old practices and customs hindering modernization the fiefs (han) of the Daimyo were abolished, the samurai class was dissolved and basic legal equalities were set up for all classes.
In order to learn about Western civilization missions of leaders of the Meiji regime were sent to the U.S. and many countries in Europe. The government also sponsored study by young scholars abroad who on return often became leading members of the new society.
Western technology was rapidly adopted. Japan soon had railroads, telegraph lines, a postal service, factories, steamships, and gas street lighting.
Hairstyles were changed. Western style clothing was adopted to some degree. Things the government thought offensive to foreigners were banned or discouraged – pornography, public bathing, tattooing. The traditional Japanese hairstyle, the topknot, came to be seen as primitive. The eating of beef became a sign of progressiveness.
Japan switched to the solar calendar in 1872 and about that same time adopted Sunday as a day of rest and made Christmas a national holiday. There was also a movement to make English the national language.
Public buildings came to be built in Western style using brick. The government hoped this kind of building would be generally adopted, but private homes continued to be built mainly in traditional style.
The most widely respected intellectual studying Western culture was Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835-1901). He had begun as a student of Dutch Learning, but soon after the establishment of the foreign residences in Yokohama switched to the study of English. He was a member of the first mission abroad in 1860 and made two more trips in 1861 and 1867. His most famous work is called An Encouragement of Learning (Gakumon no susume) in which he maintains the equality of all and states that “the distinction between wise and stupid comes down to a matter of education.” He was highly dismissive of traditional Japan saying, “All that Japan has to be proud of … is its scenery.” He established the forerunner of Keio University, which became one of the leading private universities in Japan.
Although the samurai class no longer officially existed, most of the new leaders came from this group. They did not trust the intelligence of the masses and despite the professed Meiji ideals of independence, freedom and individual rights derived from British democracy, they were not ready for universal voting rights. Rather they saw their job as enlightening the people in order to enrich the nation.
In the 1870s a movement for peoples’ rights grew up as certain members of the former samurai class looked for more political power and called for an assembly elected by the people. This led instead to repressive laws suppressing press freedom, speech and assembly.
In 1889 a constitution (Meiji Constitution) was written secretly and presented to the Japanese as a gift from the Emperor. Citizens’ rights were subject to the limitations of the law. Appointed representatives were given powers equal those of elected representatives. Nothing was said about how the Prime Minister was to be appointed and cabinet ministers were responsible only to the Emperor.
The Rescript on Education issued in 1890 also reflects the change from openness to a more restrictive attitude in the government leaders. The rescript called for a return to the kind of loyalty and filial piety in keeping with the fundamental character of Japan. This may reflect a more critical evaluation of the West that was appearing among the leaders who had accepted Western things so enthusiastically earlier.
Around this time there was much debate about the nature of Westernization. Some saw it as inevitable. Progress (Westernization/modernization) was a kind of survival of the fittest that was universal in nature. All nations would arrive at the same state eventually.
Others argued that Westernization was not a necessary outcome of modernization. Unique geography and climate led to unique forms of modernization. Diversity among peoples was viewed as basic to world progress. Adopting the ways of others would be harmful. This led for a short while to renewed interest traditional Japanese things such as the puppet theater and the haiku of Basho.
The problem of Christianity’s position in Japan remained unresolved until 1873 when it was legalized. Foreign missionaries were deeply committed to education and instilling strong moral sense in their students. Many of their Japanese students became socialist critics of the Meiji government opposed to the inequalities the Confucian education system perpetuated.
The most famous Japanese Christian of the time is Uchimura Kanzo (1861-1930) who went to study at Amherst and converted to Christianity there. On his return to Japan in 1891 he became a teacher and created a controversy when he refused to bow to a copy of the Imperial Rescript on Education. This was seen as disloyal and associated with foreign thought and the Christian religion. The problem of the apparent incompatibility of being both Japanese and Christian seems to have restricted the growth of Christianity in Japan.
Japanese literature had stagnated by the end of the Edo period being dominated by either didactic Confucian-influenced prose or by erotic comedy that essentially rewrote Saikaku.
The first Western writings of this period that interested the Japanese were mostly tales of success, scientific adventure and politics that the Japanese readers looked to as guides to understanding and applying Western modes of action. The early attempts to write in this kind of prose were not successful, being derivative and stilted in style.
A movement grew up for reform of the written language that would incorporate oral language. At the same time critics began to write about the purpose of the novel and advocate its importance as art rather than entertainment or as a means of educating.
Many poets felt that the traditional Japanese poem was too short for expression and too limited in diction and topic. A new style of poetry emerged that not only led to new forms of verse, but also reinvigorated the waka by allowing new subjects and diction.
The government promoted study of Western art and many Japanese went abroad to study. In both literature and art there was early enthusiasm for the West, but the problem of maintaining Japanese values in the new styles led to reactions against them.